Reward Based Learning on Depression-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Disucss about the Impact of reward based learning on depression. Answer: Introduction Anhedonia is the loss of interest in reward and pleasure during depression and has been found to correlate with dysfunctional reward responses across many behavioral tasks (4). Such tasks measure different aspects of anhedonia including, the anticipation and receipt of monetary rewards, the effort to achieve rewards and reward learning Anhedonia is one of the important forms of the major depressive disorders. It is a form of disorder where the patients lose their interest in the previously rewarded or the activities that were enjoyed by them (Zisner Beauchaine, 2016). The individuals who are suffering from the clinical form of depression often seen to lose interest in their hobbies, work, peer groups, family, food and even sex (Zisner Beauchaine, 2016). The disorder shuts the pleasure circuits of the brain. Several researchers observe this phenomenon as the hedonic function for the total amount of the pleasure that is possible for gaining from the single activity (Zisner Beauchaine, 2016). However, depression seems to reduce the hedonic capacity of the individual. The disease of Anhedonia refers to the reduced form of the ability that can be experienced in case to seek pleasure (Ianni et al., 2016). It has an effective form of place in the several forms of attributes of psychopathology since it has been described first by the previous century and still they can be feature of the several types of the psychiatric disorders that can lead o the maladaptive form of behaviors (Votinov et al., 2025). Anhedonia has been a part of the most extensity studied form of the major depression. However, it also contributes to one of the negative form of the symptoms for schizophrenia and other studies have observed Anhedonia as a form of the psychosis (McGorry, 2014). However, this mental disorder has been studied in the large range of the nuerophychiatric disorders that includes the Parkinsons disease, Bulimia Nervosa, Substance use disorders and the various forms of the behaviors that are risky (Ianni et al., 2016). Nevertheless, Anhedonia is considered to the main feature of the major depressive disorders as introduced by the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the Mental Disorders that requires either the depressed form of the mood or the Anhedonia to be present to propose the current diagnosis (Votinov et al., 2025).. Moreover, it has been used for the lack of the reactivity and Anhedoia is the major criteria for diagnosis for the DSM IV melancholic form of the subtype of the major depressive and its presence have showed to be the predictive form of the response that are gained through the antidepressants (Sayegh Penberthy, 2016). Absence in the specificity of the diagnosis can be regarded as the limiting form of the factor that has been implemented for defining Anhedonia as the pivotal feature of the major depressive disorders. The major development of the concept of endophenotype can be helpful for overtaking the limits based on the three notions (Sayegh Penberthy, 2016). The patients who are suffering from any psychiatric disorders can be different more in the quantitative attribute than the qualitative attribute from the healthy individuals. Moreover, the disorders that are detected can be more extensively understood if there are any form of the risk factors that are related to the genes and the environment that can be related to the disorders that are obtained through the intermediate form of phenotypes (Sayegh Penberthy, 2016). Lastly, endophenotypes are generally unspecific and they are based on the abnormal neurobiological mechanisms that are shared by the various disorders that are psychiatric. The endophenotypes that are involved in the more direct form of the neurobiological and the neuropsychological forms of the diseases that could help to find the link between the potential form of the link with the potential form of the potential risks that are more directly related to the major form of the depression (Sayegh Penberthy, 2016). There are different forms of the qualities that are required for the qualities for using the trait for the endophnotype, that includes the sensitivity and specificity, heritability, presence in unaffected relatives, state-independence, biological plausibility, sound psychometric properties, and feasibility. Anhedonia is the loss of interest in reward and pleasure during depression and has been found to correlate with dysfunctional reward responses across many behavioral tasks. Such tasks measure different aspects of anhedonia including, the anticipation and receipt of monetary rewards, the effort to achieve rewards and reward learning. However, the depression may not be shut down from the pleasure circuits entirely (Luking Barch, 2013). The alternative form of the theory also suggests that anhedonia does not come from the reduced form of the capacity to experience pleasure, instead they arises from the instability for sustaining the good feelings over a longer period (Luking Barch, 2013). In other words, it can be said that the patients somehow are unable to experience pleasure fully and by experiencing pleasure, partially it becomes impossible to sustain the interest and the involvement of the several good things in life (Luking Barch, 2013). In case of the pathways to the pleasure, the geographic layouts of the brain are very complex (Pellissier et al., 2017). The areas that are associated with the reward and the motivation include the increase of the nucleus accumbens and the prefrontal cortex (Pellissier et al., 2017). It is evident that the nerve impulse travels to both the directions for maintaining the rewards and the motivation (Pellissier et al., 2017). This phenomenon is the feeling good signals that travels to the upper level of the prefrontal cortex, but the nerve fibers also sends their signals from the prefrontal and also sends the signal downwards to the nucleus accumbens (Haber Behrens, 2014). Some of the evidences suggest that the signals of the normal brain travels downwards to the prefrontal cortex and to the nucleus acumen that may sustain the interest of the in a very pleasurable activity (Haber Behrens, 2014). However, if this phenomenon can be generalized that it can be established from the fact that the brain that is depressed can be having trouble in usage o the PFC and to sustain the NA activity over a period of time (Haber Behrens, 2014). However, in todays world, Aaron Heller and his colleagues at the University of the Wisconsin and the University of the Reading have published their work that have their focus on the above phenomenon (Ianni et al., 2016). They have reported in their journal Proceedings of the Na tional Academy of Sciencesabout the new range of the functional magnetic resonance studies of the activation patterns of the brain of the depressed and the non-depressed patients (Votinov et al., 2025). The people who looked at the pleasant and the unpleasant structure of the neural pictures over a period of thirty seven minutes, however, the volunteers were not at all passive (Votinov et al., 2025). They were made to have the conscious form of the efforts that can be effective in the enhancement of the mood of the picture that is produced and that whether they are happy sad or very much indifferent. The study highlights some major factors of insight (Sayegh Penberthy, 2016). Firstly, in case of the images that are positive, cannot be sustained from the normal brain no matter how much the individual try (Ianni et al., 2016). Secondly, there is sustainability of the activity in the neural acumens and there were associated with the reduced form of the activity in the prefrontal cortex (McGorry, 2014). Those people who were depressed could not sustain the neural activities that are reported for the less positive form of the responses that are emotional towards the observation of the pleasurable pictures (McGorry, 2014). Thirdly, a major form of difficulty was observed in the case of the sustaining the activity of the neural acumen were effectively associated with the reduced form of the activity of the prefrontal cortex. Fourthly, the patients who were suffering from depression who are observed to sustain the neural acumen are reported to have a higher level of the positive emotions in their everyday life (Votinov et al., 2025). Lastly, it has been observed that the deficit in the NA activity have their specific relationship with the positive form of the emotion. Background The major forms of the depressive disorders are the new form of the determinant that are introduced with the disability that have risen to the worldwide context (Sayegh Penberthy, 2016). It has been seen that in the prevalence of the mood disorder is nearly about 20% in the United States (Balasubramani et al., 2015). The mental disorders named as depression are often associated with the impaired form of the rewards and the processing of the emotions. The empirical form of the evidences supports suggests that there are a aberrant functioning of the reward circuit of the brain that are specified for the dopaminergic inputs from the ventral form of the striatum (Balasubramani et al., 2015). The dopaminergic input of the ventral striatum represents the prediction of the rewards errors that are the difference between the experienced and the predicted form of the reward (Balasubramani et al., 2015). The rewards predictive errors provide the mechanisms for modifying the synapses in a certain manner that can be consistent with the reinforcement form of the learning of the algorithms. However, when there is a outcome that exceeds the expectations of the value that is expected that are associated with the option that are chosen for the that are increased that can be again chosen (Balasubramani et al., 2015). The phenomena can take place because there some central role that are in the form of the adaptive behaviors, the understanding of the signals of the RPE that are affected by the depression that are affected by the depression that are important for explaining the aberrant form of the behaviour that are seen in the people who are suffering from depression (Balasubramani et a l., 2015). Using a monetary reward probabilistic learning task, studies have found that both clinically depressed patients and those with elevated levels of depression show less responsiveness to positively reinforced stimuli compared to healthy controls. Therefore, the impaired ability to modulate behaviour as a function of prior reinforcement may be a promising target for intervention. The major forms of the researches have focused on the prior region of the interest. They consistently show the attenuated form of the RPEs in the period of depression. However, as depression is associated with the deficits in learning, it can be inferred that the reward processing anomalies are very much specific to the method of teach (Balasubramani et al., 2015). However, it remains very much unknown that whether depression reduces the signals of the RPE signals in the tasks without any significant learning requirement (Forrest Hokanson, 2013). Ventral striatum represents RPEs in nonlearning tasks and dopamine measurements in this area represent RPEs. Dopamine release increases ventral striatal blood oxygen leveldependent (BOLD) activity, while pharmacologic manipulation of dopamine modulates ventral striatal RPE signals. There are has specific form of the hypothesis that were focused on that the depression is attenuated by the signals of the RPE in any task without the significance of the components of learning (Forrest Hokanson, 2013). The previous forms of the studies have claimed that the phenomenon of depression is attenuated by the emotional reactivity (McGorry, 2014). However, in case of the individuals who are healthy, the variations in the RPEs are explained for the momentary form of the fluctuations of the mood. N addition, while there are manipulation of the effects of the dopamine also affects the association that exists between the rewards and the momentary form of the mood (Forrest Hokanson, 2013). These certain findings have essentially raised the question that whether the form of the depression are reduced by the impact of the emotional outcome of the RPEs in the absence of the learning (McGorry, 2014). The major focus is on the sequel of the dysfunction that exists in the reward related form of the signaling done by the dopamine that have given rise to the existence of the hypomania that can be a result from the state of the hyperdopaminergia (Balasubramani et al., 2015). This particular form of theory was derived from the early form of the observations of the agonists of the dopamine that are induced in the behavior that are more or less like mania in the individuals who comes from the non clinical backgrounds (Balasubramani et al., 2015). However, by compelling the form of the support from the recent form of the research it has been observed that the dopamine agonists have exacerbated the abnormalities in the learning that includes the prevalence of the high form of the risks, the high choices of the rewards and the euthymic individuals with the bipolar form of the disorder (Forrest Hokanson, 2013). One of the important form of the study have been the transitional study that have been suggested that the increase in the dopamine bioavailability in the blood pressure is due to the depletion of the dopamine transporters (DAT) that can be a result of the increased levels of the dopamine. The findings also are aligned to the earlier form of evidences from the lower form of the availability for the DAT n the dorsal caudate areas of the individuals who are untreated with blood pressure that indicates the abnormalities of the blood pressure that may result from the aberrant form of the dopamine reuptake mechanisms. There is several forms of the key rewards that have emerged from what have remained very much persistent across the various forms of the state of the mood excluding major depressive disorders. The MDD pathophysiology consists of the alterations of the several forms of the neurotransmitters and the neuroendocrine systems that are extensively reviewed being in the form of the monoamines like the dopamine, serotenne, the norepinephrine, and the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis (Forrest Hokanson, 2013). However, the alterations in the glutamate and the acetylcholine have been receiving the form of attention. The recent form of the progress in the functional form of the neuroimaging that have been started primarily with the Positron emmsion tomography has been enabled the researchers to identify some of the major form of the neuroanatornical correlates of the MDD that have been seen in the reduced form of the blood or the metabolism of glucose in the prefrontal cortex, the anterior cingulated and the caudate nucleus and all these are found for recovering the remissions. The findings from the images have been very well linked with the recent form of the anatomical post mortem assessments. One of the studies has found that there are decrease n the cortical thickness, the sizes of the neurons and the glia densities in the specific layers of the doesolateral and the orbifrontal regions that contains the monoaminergic afferents (Forrest Hokanson, 2013). The reduction in the glia in the prefrontal cortex have also been found in the post mortem tissues of the persons who are familiar with the MDD or the bipolar disorders that are compared with the schizophrenia or the healthy controls. After the identifying of the altered form of the neuroanatomical regions in the MDD, a few studies have also attempted to decipher the meaning of these changes in terms of behavior, which majorly includes the symptoms of the MDD such as the retardation of the psychomotor, the suicidal ideation and the sadness as well as the responses of the treatment. The scales can measure the severity of the MDD such as the Hamilton Depression Scale are those scales that does not correlate in a consistent form with the size of the change in the activation of the brain. Therefore, the scientists are the beginning for the focus on the separate form of symptoms or the neurotransmitters rather than the disorder as a whole (Forrest Hokanson, 2013). One of the study that was found was the degree of the blood flow that have decreased within the left side of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the left anterior temporal cortex that are correlated in a negative form of severity with the negative symptom s that are rather than the score of the Hamilton Depression (Forrest Hokanson, 2013). One of the most conspicuous forms of any characteristics of the various forms of the organisms is the ability of the individual for reacting to the salient forms of the stimuli that possesses the ability to handle the appropriate form of the responses of the behavior (Custers Aarts, 2010). These responses can be maximized with the survival by the phenomenon of the avoidance that is threatening for the unpleasant events (Akiyam Yamawaki, 2017). The reward system of the brain, which is believed to have a major role in the controlling these behaviors, is actually a very complex circuit that have been containing by the limbic system of the forebrain and it forms a link between the midbrain aminergic (for example, dopaminergic and serotonergic) (Forrest Hokanson, 2013). There are numerous forms of study that are published for the documentation of the studies that have been the part of the neurobiological changes that are associated with schizophrenia and the other from of neuropsychiatric disorders that are characterized by disease of anhedonia but there are relative form of the specific form of the presence in the severity of anhedonia (Bradley et al., 2017). While there is a consideration of the Major depressive disorders and the schizophrenia they can be characterized by the various forms of the symptoms that are unlikely to form the neural factors that are mediating from the anhedonia that are also involved in the feelings of hallucinations and guilt (Custers Aarts, 2010). Therefore, due to the links of the single form of the genetic neural mechanisms there are some of the complex forms of the disorders that are related to the behaviors. However, in the recent form of the increased focus of the understanding of the neurobiology of the dimensions of the specific form of the behaviors, the dimensions are the mainly hedonic that are been altered by the psychiatric patients (Sayegh Penberthy, 2016). There are substantial form of the evidence that the dopamine is in the form of the actor critic that has been use to offer the account that are involved in the reward learning and the appetite form of the conditioning of the main subdivisions of the systems of the midbrain dopamine. The moods disorders are collectively account for the substantial proportion of the disease of the burden across the globe and have a devastating impact on quality of life and occupational function. Here we evaluate recent progress in understanding the neurocognitive mechanisms involved in the manifestation of mood disorders (Sayegh Penberthy, 2016). The disorders in the mood that are collectively for proportion of the burden of the disease those have the burden of the disease that have been devastating impact for the quality if the life and the functions of the occupation. There are most recent forms of the progress in the understanding in the mechanisms of the neurocognitive that are involved in the manifestations of the disorders of the of mood. We however, tend to focus on the four domains of the cognitive function that are altered in the patients with the depression that have the executive control, affective form of processing, memory and the feedback sensitivity. These alterations have implicated the distributed in the neural circuits that can be composed of the multiple sectors of the prefrontal cortex in the interaction with the subcortical regions and the temporal structures of the lobe (Pizzagalli, 2014). The affective form of processing and the feedbacks are the sensitivity is highly sensitive to the manipulation of the serotonergic manipulations that are antidepressant treatments (Custers Aarts, 2010). Therefore, by drawing together the cognitive, the pharmacological and the cognitive tiers of the research. Therefore, the directions of the future investigations to be identifying people that are at risk maximize for the long-term beneficial form of the outcomes who are suffering from the disease (Pizzagalli, 2014). There are various evidences that have suggests that insomnia can be the major reasons that may interrupt the brain mechanisms that are involved in the reward learning process. The adolescent age are the period due to which the disruption can be very much problematic and it can give rise to the incidences of insomnia that are faced by the ongoing form of the incidence of insomnia of the neural mechanisms that can effectually support the neural system of supporting the processing of the rewards (Ianni et al., 2016). One of the major forms of the possibility is that there are insufficient amount of sleep that affects the mental health of the adolescent people. From the past studies, it has been seen that there is a consistent form of the neuro development models realted to depression where there are symptoms of the insomnia can be seen in the early adolescents that later contributes to the symptoms of depression (Ianni et al., 2016). The future studies have determined that there are det ermined that whether there are non restorative form of the sleep that are the form of the nocturnal insomnia that have their unique form of effects on the development of the circuitry that are related to rewards and that are related to the depression during adolescents (Ianni et al., 2016). Purpose of the Study In the setting of the prison there are several reliance of the treatments that are found in the reliance of the punishment for the inappropriate form of the non compliant form of the behavior that are generally self evident (Custers Aarts, 2010). It s very much evident that there are a lot of similarity between the reliance of the punishment and the use of the reinforcements that are positive in nature increases the desired form of the behaviors (Pizzagalli, 2014). However, there are seldom that the inmate of the jail receives the positive form of reinforcement for the prosocial form of behavior. The study have provided an overview of the development and the implementation of the positive form of the reinforcement interventions that are seen in the males and the females who are undergoing the prison based form of the treatment programs (Custers Aarts, 2010). However, these factors have the major impacts on the ability of the designs that are randomized for the demonstration that are based on the effectiveness of the interventions. The usages of the reinforcements are the increased forms of the desired behaviors are also commonly known as the operant conditioning (Custers Aarts, 2010). It has a long form of the traditions that are applied in the literature of the behavior that can be managed by the contingency techniques and are widely used in the context of the treatment of the individuals who are drug dependent (Pizzagalli, 2014). However, these are used for providing the reinforcements that are effectively compete with the reinforcement of the drugs to promote the concepts of the drug abstinence and the alternative form of the behaviors that are not related to the drugs (Custers Aarts, 2010). The approaches of the CM have an impactful form of the support from the experimental research that are been taken into account for the promoting the behavior changes in the users of the substances (Akiyam Yamawaki, 2017). The meta analysis and the systematic form of the reviews of the experimental literature have always concluded that the techniques of the CM are always effective in sustaining the drug abstinence with the meta analysis that are consistent with the findings of the large effects of the treatment. It has been observed that within the setting of the prison there are no room for the ceiling effects that were previously stated (Pizzagalli, 2014). However, the prison-based drug that are used for the treatment programs are generally characterized by the low levels of the motivation and the engagement on the part of the inmates that are enrolled in them (Akiyam Yamawaki, 2017). However, there are no appropriate roles for the positive form of the reinforcement of the behavior that exists within the bad treatment of the prison that would be there to facilitate the various changes in the cognitive processes of the jail inmates (Sayegh Penberthy, 2016). The main purpose of the study is to know about the impact of the rewards learning on the depressive group of individuals. . The present study investigated reward learning as a function of familial depression risk and current diagnostic status in a pediatric sample. The mental disease name depression are also found in the jail inmates who are sentenced for a longer period. They feel low and they are not motivated in their life. Therefore, it is easier for them to succumb to the major depressive disorders. Therefore, to overcome the certain situation they need some form of the external motivation. Thus, the study illustrates one of the major technique to realize the depression of the individuals through the method of reward learning. The study is a form of comparative study where the comparison are drawn between two groups namely the depressive groups under punitive conditions and the healthy control groups under normal conditions. However, there are certain gaps in the chapter. In thi s chapter, the detailed background of the disease and the target group on whom the effect of the disease is observes are clearly analyzed. However, the effective measures and strategies that can be implemented to reduce the depression of the individuals under the punitive conditions are not addressed properly. However, how the method of reward learning helps to reduce depression will be analyzed in the literature review with the proof of past done studies. However, the whole discussion gives a very brief analysis of the whole research. The reasons and the purpose of the study is given in a illustrated way. The background of the research is given in a clear manner. It gives a clear picture about Anhedonia, its causes and the various impacts of the disease on the mental health of the individuals. The background also introduces about the concept of reward learning and how they are useful or not useful to reduce depression of the individuals. 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